Initial Statements: The following introduction is an excerpt from an expansive project I am working on regarding the scope of government in the plight of the Reformers, English Puritans, and the American Revolutionaries. Throughout my discourse on the Reformation, the following articles will in no way look to glorify the Reformers but look at their actions, beliefs, and motivations in a purely objective sense.
The Protestant Reformation sought out to revitalize and return Christian piety back to its original form. Reformation era scholars and theologians, who saw the ills of the Catholic Church, presented their arguments for reform not by advocating for the ratification of revolutionary doctrines, but, rather, these radical reformers embarked on a mission to elevate the forgotten doctrines of the past. Much like Christ’s methodical elevation of the Jewish law presented in The Sermon on the Mount, the Reformers wanted to get to the heart of the issue rather than merely correcting immoral behavior. Yet, before the Reformers could get to the heart of any individual, they had to remove the veil that hid the eternal souls of millions from the truth of the gospel, so they believed. This veil was none other than the most powerful institution in western civilization, the Catholic Church.
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The English were always very much on the run. Considering the illegality of their situation at Scrooby and subsequent escape to Holland, these "religious dissenters" were constantly looking to conduct their religious matters under the nose of the English Crown. Inevitably, their spiritual zeal was so extraordinary that it brought them to a colossal decision, remain in Holland and let their children fall into a new cultural identity, or escape into the unknown, the uninhabited lands of New England. Their settlement at Leiden (Holland) was beginning to have a profound influence on the groups' youngsters. The children from Scrooby began to progressively reject their English roots and take up the local customs Holland had to offer. This brought the group to a rather uncomfortable decision, some suggested reverting back to life in England but others could not fathom continuing their worship in private… the only rational choice was to escape to the New World in hope of creating a spiritually homogenous society that was wholly in favor of their Reformed theological sentiments. The reality of the situation was that their spiritual identity had taken them to an unforeseen extreme, to migrate 3,500 miles across the Atlantic into a world unknown. The main factor behind the English expedition to New England was surely a concern for religious matters. Although this is noble, it differs drastically compared to the motives of fellow European powers, especially the Spanish Crown. For the Spanish, and solely to the Spanish, colonization was a governmentally sanctioned action that sought out to spread the influence of Catholicism, find and export gold, and spread the name and fame of the Spanish Crown. Dissimilarly, the English acquisition of lands in New England was not frankly advocated, in the form of legal documentation, by the English government. Although James I was extremely vocal about his desire for the extermination of Puritanism in England, he never provided any substantial decree allowing such “religious dissenters” to peacefully and legally leave the land. Thus, the Pilgrims found themselves colonizing without the real advocation of the Crown. Unlike the Spanish, the English were short on the necessary provisions, including proper military supplies, and lacked the essential support from their government to be considered fully prepared for such a venture. Therefore, if we were using organizational terms, it is safe to assert that the English expedition to the New World was metaphorically headed by a grassroots firm while the Spanish were led by a mass conglomerate. Regardless of the differences between the two colonizing powers, both succeeded in their conquest to the New World. But the question remains, how did the English, with considerably fewer resources and provisions from their government, persevere despite all odds? It is understandable that the Spanish would instill their cultural mark on the Americas but how could a group of generally ill-skilled, undernourished religious zealots overcome the harsh New England winters and establish the complex city of Boston? This is a complicated question that colonial historians have tried to unpack for hundreds of years… was it Providence? European-Native relations? Passion? The concise answer would be that all those factors played a role in sustaining life in Plymouth Colony and beyond. But, above all, their collective passion for Christ would bond them in their mission to worship freely, and reach that goal in some of the most extreme circumstances. The English expedition from Leiden remains an extraordinary example of what it means to hold fast to the truth in the waves of uncertainty.
If accepted, the Millenary Petition was thought of like a golden ticket for religious nonconformists in England. It was the blessed key out of a prison of religious formalism. Those who did not consider themselves apart of the statutory methodology of worship, like that of the Puritans, were subsequently without hope of expression, upon the rejection of their requests. What was expected as an attitude of favor from James suddenly turned into unexpected hostility. From the King’s perspective, the Puritans were an unwanted rodent that he was trying to shoo out of England, in fact, during the latter statements delivered at the Hampton Court Conference he made the stance that he desired to “harry them out of the land!” Amidst the mounting pressure to conform to the Church of England, we follow the story of a young country-boy from the West Riding region of Yorkshire. William Bradford, born in Austerfield, in the early spring of 1590, acquired a peculiar distaste concerning the technique behind worship within his local church. The church, known as St. Helen’s, was built after the Norman conquest of the eleventh century. It was a stone building boating a rather unusual carving of a serpent over the entry point (this was not the only issue). Many thought this was uncharacteristic, if not, an unnecessary feature for any sort of holy place. Not only was this weird but English Puritans saw this symbol as something bigger than what met the eye. This was inherently spiritual and the serpent would have surely rendered a resemblance towards Satan’s manifestation in the garden. Was this to be their fall? Anxiousness rushed through the hearts and minds of the thoughtful men and women of St. Helen’s. Under distress, Bradford and many others resolved to find a different house of worship to ensure their spiritual security. Bradford and others sought out spiritual refuge in Scrooby, a tiny village near the outskirts of the somewhat sizable market town of Bawtry. They would gather under the guidance of the town's postmaster, William Brewster, in a rather unconventional manor house that had been previously occupied by the Archbishop of York. Although, the previous owner was an undesirable one at best due to the fact that such religious authorities were subject the notify the crown of any suspicious or unwanted form of religion, a category in which these separatists would have fallen under. Sure enough, amidst the mounting pressure against groups such as the congregation at Scrooby, the Archbishop of York discovered the undercover proceedings headed by Brewster sometime in 1607. Some of the congregationalists were jailed while others found out they were being watched by the government. A scary reality to say the least. There was only one option at this point; leave England. Although, King James had not provided religious non-conformers with the legal means to leave the country. Therefore, their only option was to escape under the nose of the crown.
The Plymouth Colony: Ecclesiastical Convictions and Religious Obstacles under James I of England1/18/2019 After the murder of his father and the exile of his mother, James VI of Scotland assumed the throne at the approximate age of thirteen months. Of course, James wasn’t expected to be the chief authority of the Scottish kingdom at such an age, in fact, a number of representative regents governed throughout his minority. Due to his political and intellectual promise, James was surrounded by a number of established tutors before he officially appropriated the throne in 1567. One such tutor, George Buchanan, sought out to instill in James a passion for his own sentiments for reformed theology and a desire to promote the Protestant cause in the Scottish Highlands, especially in the Gàidhealtachd region. As his faithful companion and tutor, Buchanan inculcated in James a lifelong admiration for scholarship and learning. Furthermore, James certainly familiarized himself with the many systematic presuppositions that any good Calvinist brought to the scriptures and later committed himself to the good of the Scottish Presbyterian Church, all under the influence of Buchanan and other notable tutors. So, when many faithful reformed Englishmen heard of the impending reign of James I (James VI is his Scottish title), suddenly a certain hope surround their religious yearnings. Although, James’s requisition of the English crown was a sizable undertaking, despite his preliminary conception of the job. The demise of Queen Elizebeth of England brought forth impending complications for the soon-to-be king. Elizebeth left the English government £400,000 in debt, an equivalent of four years of ordinary revenue. In reality, by inheriting the English crown, James believed he had assumed a land of profitable value. Yet, the political landscape of early seventeenth century England was plagued with a number of apparent religious conflicts that would prove problematic for James. From the perspective of the Puritans, James would hopefully further the cause of the Reformation in England, as he did in Scotland. Retrospectively, things were not really all that simple. Although James considered himself somewhat of a Calvinist, he held many grievances against the way in which the Puritans were going about things in England. Correspondingly, when a number of influential Puritan leaders rode to the English border to present their ecclesiastical requests to their new king, he called the Hampton Court Conference in January of 1604 to formally deny a majority of their pleas and hopefully put an end to their appeals to the throne. So what was it that the Puritans desired? Their requests were put forth in what was dubbed the Millenary Petition; which begged the dismissal of the sign of the cross, the use of the ring in marriage, the rite of confirmation, the plea for an updated Bible translation and revisions to the Book of Common Prayer. Yet, despite their valiant requests for revision, most of these cravings were dismissed by James I due to his sentiments regarding the Divine Rights of Kings, in which he wrote an official textbook over back in Scotland. The doctrine of the Divine Rights of Kings stated that the ruling authority of the land was a direct reflection of God’s will on earth and his policies thereof. Therefore, seeking to purify particular characteristics of the government, as the Puritans were trying to do, meant that the one was toiling to change the characteristics of God. In formally denying their requests at Hampton, James set forth his attitude towards religious uprisings, such as the Puritans, who, in his eyes, who were dismissing the authority of the Church of England.
It is safe to say that eighteenth-century New England was one of the more staunchly religious societies to ever make its way on the map. After all, a majority of Protestant Europeans were making their way to the British North American Colonies to escape the religious persecution apparent in the Old World. Such groups as the Pilgrims, who originally looked to escape English persecution in the safeguard of Holland, were one of the earliest groups to establish their Separatist ideas on the banks of the Southern Massachusetts Shore. Separatist theology was, in short, harmonized with the Calvinistic doctrine that such Puritans advocated, but different in the sense that Separatists wanted to formally separate themselves from the Church of England rather than trying to purify it. Regardless of these minor technicalities, the world in which Jonathan grew up in was intrinsically rooted in the staunch piety instilled by New England’s rich Reformation theology. Jonathan's introduction into Puritanistic theology would mostly take place amidst long hours wondering in his father’s vast study. Not to mention the extensive time that he spent studying the New England Primer which was the foundational text for teaching youngsters the basics of scripture, arithmetic, and theology. The New England Primer was the standardized means to which children could grasp the moral implications of life mostly through straightforward memorization and acronymical assistance. It mostly followed the theological convictions contained in the Westminster Confessions of Faith (1646) and sometimes included a short excerpt from John Cotton’s Spiritual Milk for Boston Babes. Surely before Jonathan was in his teens his early inklings towards Christianity would be heavily swayed upon stumbling upon The Redeemed Captive Returning to Zion in his father’s mass collection of theological works. The work covered the heroism and terror apparent in the life of John Williams, who encountered physical and spiritual suffering at the expense of his pastorate position in Deerfield. Jonathan found himself wrapped up in Williams’ resilience to overcome severe loss at the hands of Indian raiders and was thoroughly inspired to investigate why Williams’ put so much at stake for the good of Christianity in the colonies. It remains important to note, Edwards’ enticement towards a wonderment in Christ was furthered at the exposure of literature. We will skip over the point at which Edwards found saving faith in Christ (see: Jonathan’s Boyish Rebellion and Journey to Faith in Christ). During the latter half of 1722, amidst his time living in New York City, Edwards devoted himself to a set of Resolutions. Written in his diary, Jonathan composed seventy statements (or Resolutions) that he intended to keep him away from worldly distractions and towards Godly activity. These statements were specifically aimed at the usage of time and greatly emulated the concept of “The Protestant Work Ethic”. In fact, the concept of time was a monumentally important framework in Puritan devotion and a notion that wholly ruled Edwards’ life. Time was, from Jonathan's perspective, a fading pleasure in the wake of eternity yet an opportunity to toil and work before the Lord. This is why New England undergoes the reputation for one of the most hardworking societies to exist. In a historically Calvinistic sense, time was to be used almost strictly for spiritual edification and the pleasure of implementing one’s spiritual convictions in work was an undeserved common grace. Furthermore, this is why we see Jonathan rising in the wee hours of the morning to write, read, and study up to twelve hours per day. Amidst all that time in his study, there are two foundational precepts that establish Edwards as one of the most formidable figures in the world of philosophical theology. Primarily, we can better see Edwards through his world of divine sovereignty. Jonathan sought to gaze upon the created order through the lens of occasionalism, which is the idea that objects are not merely just physical substances but meant to be grand reflections of God. Secondly, Jonathan’s sentiments regarding sovereignty intermix with his thoughts on natural beauty. Edwards, in his Treatise Concerning Religious Affections, insists that nature is essentially a divine impression of God’s beauty and when this beauty is understood by humanity, one’s affections might thoroughly be stirred for God. In short, one of God’s primary means of communicating with his people is through the created order and what has been created reflects God’s own likeness. Overall, Edwards’ theological ideas were infused with concepts of sovereignty, beauty, the use of time, and piety. AuthorFounder and Executive Contributor: Preston Blakeley - Age 18 - Denton, Texas. Skirmishes between colonists and Native-American tribes near Jonathan’s hometown of East Windsor were far from uncommon. In fact, the town constructed a substantial amount of fortifications to protect its loyal citizens from Indian raids. White picket fences, which now ironically symbolize a rather tranquil middle-class status, proved one of the simplest implementations that colonial authorities decided to use to provide some sense of protection against the warring adversary. The reality is, that colonists, despite their rather staunch Protestant convictions, quite frequently found themselves in military conundrums. In fact, Jonathan’s father, Timothy Edwards, was appointed the head military chaplain over a battalion of Connecticotiansins during a Canadian expedition for a couple of weeks in 1711. The fact of the matter was that Jonathan's childhood reality was plagued with the possibility of frequent attacks upon him, his family, and his neighbors. But what should have seemed like terror to Edwards fueled his adventurous and rebellious childlike temperament. His rebellious nature would exhibit itself throughout various parts of his life, including, a confusing juxtaposition between searching for theological truth and yearning to live as he thought fit, which would haunt him during his undergraduate years at the Collegiate School of Connecticut (Yale College). One of the many ways in which Jonathan would exhibit his recalcitrant attitude towards authority would come through the means of his rather boyish neighborhood portrayal of combat with local Indian tribes. Essentially he was promoting “play-war” with his fellow youngsters. Although, this would seem somewhat socially acceptable today, pretending to go to battle with one another, in a strict Puritanistic context, did not live up to the standards of Jonathan’s disciplinarian father. Furthermore, throughout Jonathan’s young adulthood and emergence into the college atmosphere, he persistently found himself disgusted with New England’s Calvinist sentiments. In fact, he often associated these Genevan convictions with his parents’ idea of piety and personal holiness, which, at the time, he outrightly found as “a melancholy, morose, sour and unpleasant thing.” On the other hand, according to some of the initial writings we have from Edwards (specifically when he was twelve), he often commented on the spiritual revivals and upheavals towards piety in his day. Overall, Edwards never found himself personally satisfied with falling into the popular religious inclinations of his time but he rather wanted to understand the why behind the what. Edwards was, at the least, resentful of reconciling himself to his own heritage. His breakthrough would soon come during his time in New Haven in the midst of a deep spiritual crisis. His fellow nineteen classmates, the graduating class of 1720, would prove distracting beyond any point of true virtue. Broken bottles, loud disruptions at night, and hazing were events commonly associated with Jonathan’s graduating class. Caught up in the stress of managing his academic pursuits and university halfwits, Jonathan angrily commanded his roommate to fetch him cider one night tenfold. He was at a point of distress and was earnestly looking for answers. Yet, unlike many today, Jonathan would not sideline his intellect when looking to pursue spiritual truth. Rationalization and the ability to understand theological truth were inseparable traits that would serve him well during his pilgrimage to find Christ. The tide that would turn his religious sensibilities would be the realization that God had manifested his glory throughout all things. With God’s own glory the center of his own universe, all things looked to reflect his nature. Thus, the more God was present in our everyday reality the more mankind could delight in him. Edwards found this to be a stunning spiritual reality and one that would progressively free him from the grip of sin upon his life. He was surely “wrapped up in God.” AuthorFounder and Executive Contributor: Preston Blakeley - Age 18 - Denton, Texas. Widely coined as ‘America’s greatest philosopher and theologian’, Jonathan Edwards proved himself as one of the most remarkable figures in all of history. Whether one accepts his defining theological principals or not, Edwards objectively made a name for himself as one of the greatest minds to ever set foot on this earth. Although, the content of these publications regarding Edwards will not look to wholly glorify him, but to bring the reader into a more profound understanding of him through his moral failures and his many accomplishments. After all, any good biography must be objective. Known today for his dreadfully evocative portrayal of hellfire and damnation, it is not often that we find ourselves happily studying Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God. Unfortunately, Jonathan’s discourse regarding God’s eternal wrath upon unregenerate sinners remains the only popular source through which our educational system likes to talk about Edwards. Furthermore, making assumptions concerning Edwards after solely reading “Sinners” is pretty easy and yet it never does history the justice it deserves. Jonathan contained a quite awkward temperament. He was quiet, most definitely introverted, and alarmingly tall. His lack of social awareness and inability to communicate adeptly around others made it difficult for one to converse with him. He was altogether not known for any sense of natural eloquence and this was also true in his preaching and teaching ministry. Unlike the booming voices of the evangelical world, such as Whitefield and Spurgeon, Edwards found himself capturing his audience with sharp imagery. Jonathan's deep aptitude for theological imagery illuminated his teaching. His preaching was marked by acute descriptions of light, water, nature, wind, insects, and of course, hellfire and brimstone. Consider this excerpt from Sermons and Discourses, 1730-1733, “To go to heaven, fully to enjoy God, is infinitely better than the most pleasant accommodations here. Better than fathers and mothers, husbands, wives, or children, or the company of any, or all earthly friends. These are but shadows, but the enjoyment of God is the substance. These are but scattered beams, but God is the sun. These are but streams, but God is the fountain. These are but drops, but God is the ocean.” It was through this beautiful imagery that Edward’s so profoundly enlightened the dark souls of his audience. Jonathan’s lack of eloquence would also translate into how he would prepare for his sermons. Unlike most preachers today who formalize an outline for their sermons, Edwards would essentially go to another extreme. Edwards would formally memorize his complete sermons, writing them down on paper and preaching from memory. For Edwards, contrary to popular belief, public speaking did not come easily. So, in conclusion, we may affirm the notion that Jonathan contained various qualities that were suitable for a lot of things besides preaching and leading revivals (the irony). It is fair to say that Jonathan’s timid temperament contrasts drastically from the disposition of the pipesmoking Spurgeon. The question remains, how could such an apprehensive figure find himself leading one of the most important revivals in all of New England? AuthorFounder and Executive Contributor: Preston Blakeley - Age 18 - Denton, Texas. As an increasingly technological and inventive society, holding fast to the promises and circumstances of yesterday seem less and less significant. Without a doubt, finding one’s vocation in the engineering world has progressively become far more popular than studying the liberal arts. Simply, as developments in scientific professions continue to rise, the demand for such occupations will steadily increase as well. A vast and abundant job market, financial security, and innovative technological improvements that make a difference are characteristics that closely relate with studying scientific inquiry. With such positive outcomes resulting from an education in the STEM fields, why do our American educational systems continue to teach the liberal-arts, much less encourage students to pursue them with their lives? After all, the University of Wisconsin at Stevens Point plans to do away with thirteen of their humanities-based majors, according to the Wall Street Journal. So, why even study history? Mark Zuckerberg, Harvard dropout and CEO of Facebook, found one of his many motivations in the all-encompassing world of history. In high school, Mark found himself happily investing his spare time in studying the Classical Period. On his college applications, he noted that he was near proficient in reading and writing the classical languages, such as Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Yet, Zuckerberg would especially find his inspiration in the form of Augustus Caesar. Augustus, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, previously known as Octavian, proved somewhat of a dark-horse candidate for accomplishing what would be known as the Pax Romana. The Pax Romana marked a two-hundred-year period of social and economic stability, a record increase in population, and the Republic reached its peak in term of land mass. Zuckerberg found this especially inspiring, as anyone probably should, and committed himself to overcome a seemingly impossible task as well. Zuckerberg looked to wholly model Augustus’s temperament (although hopefully not inheriting his dictatorial side) in attitude, disposition, and governance over his employees at Facebook. Upon visiting Rome for his honeymoon, Mark tirelessly went on and on about the prodigiousness of the Holy Roman Empire. According to his wife, he would not shut up. It is through these types of mannerisms that history decides to thoroughly prick us. Many will argue that the sole reason we study history today is so that humanity does not repeat the past. Although this might be true it is surely not the entire truth. History is inspiring, stimulating, and enthralling and Zuckerberg’s example takes us beyond just the notion that historians do what they do to avoid making the same mistakes. Many will claim that history is valued out of fear so that these mistakes are not repeated, but rather, it is valued out of a keen admiration for the past. Like Christians reading the greatest theological minds, we cultivate in ourselves an inspiration to take the good and implement it into our everyday lives. History should not merely be restricted to historians alone, but to the common man, so that he too, might find the inspiration to overcome what seems like the impossible. AuthorFounder and Executive Contributor: Preston Blakeley - Age 18 - Denton, Texas. |